When Buddhism was the dominant tradition in India Essay Example for Free

When Buddhism was the dominant tradition in India Essay Indian historical periods are related to the Buddhists Thought in terms of social ferment and intense intellectual social and cultural beliefs. The periods of how the religious groups evolved during the authority of the Vedas and their concept of the god they believed in. These periods range from the times at which there was consequential progress in the development of the religion in India. There were in certain hereditary statuses restrictions that had cast castle mobility of the implications of the rituals associated with the efficacy of Buddhism. The first periods of evolution of Buddhism started as early as 246 B. C in the northern parts of India. It then developed through very many empires and rulers to become a religion that is appreciated even today in all parts of the World. This paper will therefore analyze the periods of evolution of Buddhism and how it dominates the religious beliefs and minds of the ancient Indians and other people around the region. It will also look at how the religion was affected by the entry of other religious teachings including Islam and Christianity. It will find discuss the implications of the Thought of Buddhists with regard to the teachings of the founder of Buddhism by emphasizing the negative and positive aspects of the religion in the ancient and current Indians. Philosophical relevance of Buddhism to ancient India. Some sects associated with the religion are greatly contributing to the unified philosophical system of the cultural beliefs of the Indian population both in the past and in the early and mid twentieth centuries. Some critics both in India and other neighboring countries who had adopted the religion are pointing out several problems which prevent its acceptance by all people. They argue that Buddhists have in the past and still reject past action of deterministic behavior which keeps on changing as the technology changes . It is also considers that the soul and the body are inseparable and that it is not possible that the soul cannot survive death as claimed by some sects within Buddhism. Such kinds of teachings are considered to be mythical in nature and not the actual ones developed by Buddha himself at the time of conceiving the ‘knowledge’. While ethics and morals had to be emphasized during the time of Buddha, it should be done through judicial procedures which is currently overtaking the power and authority that religious leaders are having in their beliefs to punish offenders to some extent. Some scholars also believe that the views as expressed by the Buddhist religion are too advanced to be adopted by all societies considering the current diversity of societies, cultures, and religion. It evident that society has not reached a point where education needs to be universal and the society need to be developed further in the sense of prevalent superstitions and irrational beliefs. In this era where the society is limited when it comes to concepts and nature, religions are becoming increasingly controversial especially when it deals with patent issues of families, obedience, faith, God, life after death etc. the scholars also continue to analyze the impacts with which Buddhism has had on the current development of India when compared to the other cultures in other regions at the time of Buddhism in India. History of Buddhism Prince Siddhartha Guatama founded Buddhism in the kingdom of Shakwa in Nepal at the foothills of the Himalayas in the 500A. D which is approximately 2,500 years ago. It is believed that Siddhartha Guatama left his luxurious life in the palace to look for ‘better life elsewhere’. Buddhism was then conceived after the Prince moved around and met the poor who were suffering. After seeing this, Siddhartha Guatama recognized the fact that something was wrong with the societal order and it should be addressed very urgently. He therefore decided that he shares his wealth with the poor in the society with a view to making them equal with him. He spent most of his life doing this and God blessed him with immense knowledge that he got a revelation of life and the meaning of suffering. With this he was sure that he knew the real meaning of living. Thus the realization of Buddhism and the Buddhist Thought. The prince got the Buddhist Thought while sitting under the tree known as the papal tree and from that day, he was acknowledged by not only his admirers but also by other sympathizers of different religious beliefs. In the final barriers, Guatama achieved knowledge and he experienced a lot of truths that is all about suffering and life. The four noble truths as revealed by prince Guatama are; †¢ All of life is suffering †¢ The cause of suffering is desire †¢ Desire leads to suffering †¢ Desire can be ended by means of mediation and path discipline. Buddhists Thought With the achievement of this knowledge, Guatama was now the awakened one-Buddha meaning the birth of Buddhism. He thus spent most of his life traveling around India spreading the gospel of Buddha and the meaning of Buddhism in the ancient life of the Indians at the moment. More and more people continued to adopt the culture of the teachings of Buddhists while integrating the relevant principles of the religion to their daily needs. The principles of Buddhism encourage the teachings of Mahayana, Hinayana, Vayajarana teachings. These teachings encourages the upholding human life and assisting people to become equal in terms of food provision, culture, obedience, respect and punishment . Indian merchants and loyalty resulted and patronized monasteries for centuries after the introduction of the Buddhist Thought. In this period, hemispherical stone structures were erected in remembrance of the founder of the religion after he died after eighty years. Various temples were also built to signify the importance of the teachings to the ancient Indians. This is the first development of the Buddhists Thought impacted very strongly on the lives of the ancient people not only in India but also in neighboring countries that had received the message from the missionaries of Buddhism. Buddhism is also considered an organized religion with high philosophical orders within the Indian society. During the early twentieth century for example, Buddhism dramatically came back to spur a combination of philosophical interests and European antiquarian activities as practiced by the devotees available by then in the northern parts of the Indian region. This meant that all issues that were perceived to be supernatural to the normal man were enough to be adequately addressed by the Buddhists Thought and the principles as stated by Buddha. Forms of Buddhism The Himalayan communities practiced a form of Buddhism that shared same fundamental principles as those practiced by the Tibetan communities. This form of Buddhism is considered as promoting spiritual advancement, enhancing intercession, and enlightening human beings on their role on earth. Most of the forms of Buddhism are Adopted by different countries depending on their own understanding of the teachings. The ‘Doctrine of the elders’ is the most followed form of Buddhism that traces its origin to the first principle of the Buddhists Thought. It is being adored by the Indians and it traces its origin to scriptural traditions of the Pali community of eastern India. This doctrine stresses a more advanced human-like Buddhism that is coated with a democratic path which enables its followers to embrace unity, marriage simplicities, and abolition of marriage expenses, increased sense of identity, self-esteem, self-worth, and reducing alcoholism. Spreading the Buddhism Thought The religion from its inception in northern India spread to other parts of the country and within a short period of time it had spilled over to countries such as China, Korea and Japan. It is also believed that within India itself, Buddhism flourished against backdrops of various rulers in India who viewed it as a threatening and extreme religion which would interfere with their ruling capacitates. It is particularly believed that it was taken to higher levels by the emperors of Ashoka, Milinda, kanishka and Bimbishara who had all found the teachings of the religious practice useful top the Indian community and the whole societies at large. Around the thirteenth century, Buddhism disappeared slowly but not after leaving a legend on the religious beliefs in India. In fact, it is known that the prince who founded Buddhism did not even contemplate appointing a successor to continue with the teachings and the spreading of the religion. He rather advocated for each and every individual follower to maintain a personal form of salvation in which individuals regard all human beings as equal and worth in the eyes of the almighty. This meant that all followers of Buddhism had the moral responsibility of maintaining their own integrity as advocated by Buddha in his teachings in the eyes of other people. The main reason why Buddhism thrived and flourished in ancient Indian country was the support it received from the local kings and emperors such as Kosala. Guatama was known to be an intense austerity practitioner in that he was able to deny himself lots of luxuries and even starve himself to death if need be. At one point, he decided that self torture had weakened his mind for as long time and things needed to change. By failing to advance his enlighten status; he was reduced to a certain style of renunciation through dedicational mediation. Since Buddhism existed in the oral traditions only, it was necessary to have some kind of mechanisms to ensure that practices and doctrines of Buddhism are maintained. It was seen necessary to have a Council of Buddhists to do the job. These councils had their individual responsibilities. The first council This council arose out of Maha’s concern for the future of all Indians and the fate of the Buddha’s dependents. In this first council, the monks were required to deal with the disciplines within the Thought of Buddha. This first council was also to make recommendations and agreements on the controversial issues as singled out by the ancient rulers and scholars in India. The role of this council; became so complicated that after a couple of years, a second council was formed. The second council The responsibilities of the second council were to iron out differences that had arisen from the disagreements between the elders of the order and the monks. The monks had wanted to get exclusive powers to apply rules and regulations with regard to the believers who did not conform to the teachings of Buddha. This council was given the authority to iron out differences at all levels of leadership. However, most of the monks did not agree that the most attainable position would be the Arhat and that there would be other positions that can be attained by any other individual. Arhat was not measurable to Buddha and that is why it not possible to claim that Arhat is the highest point of holiness. The misunderstandings between the two groups of leaders led to the development of two Buddhist traditions. These are; the Great way and the Way of the Elders. Despite the fact that the two groups of the traditions give ultimate respect to the teachings of Buddha, they differ on issues such as monastic disciplines, Buddha-hood and obedience to the teachings. They were designed to meet challenges of misunderstandings of leaders in the councils The third council This council was held during the empire of emperor Ashoka who led the Buddhism monarchy at the third century B. C. It was held at the palatipultra reigns where most non-Buddhists joined the religious group mainly because they felt that it offered them some kind of royal patronage. Although most of the new members were finding it difficult to meet the expectations of their new religion, they had in some way retained their old beliefs. This third council was being formed at the height of increased membership to enable people disregard their old practices that do not conform to the teachings of Buddhism. The fourth and the fifth councils were all formed to counter moves by other religious groups to ouster Buddhism and its spread in and outside of India.

Radical Criminology Essay -- Social Inequality Criminal Justice

Criminal law involves prosecution by the state of a person for an act that has been classified as a crime (Criminal law, 2010). But who gets to decide what acts are criminal? It should be no surprise that the individuals with the most power do. For radical criminologists, the problem arises in capitalist societies because it is in these societies where the means of production are owned privately by a small number of people. Based on the writings of Karl Marx, radical criminologists argue that the state works to serve the interests of the capitalist ruling class and that criminal law is merely an instrument of that class to keep all other classes in a disadvantage position (Young et al.,1973; Quinney, 1980). Named the elites, bourgeois, or the ruling class, these powerful people formulate and shape the content of the law to further their interests and at the same time to exploit the poor and the weak. Criminal law protects the powerful by making it look like the most dangerous types o f crime are committed by the poor and consequently by setting the stage for criminal justice officials to go after and punish perpetrators of street crime more harshly than those who commit white collar or corporate crime. On September 13, 1989, a small Kentucky town experienced a powerful tragic mining â€Å"accident,† or so it seemed. The powerful methane explosion left 10 men dead. A federal investigation revealed that the acting foreman at the mine falsified countless safety reports including those that documented methane levels. The foreman failed to comply with safety and regulatory requirements that ultimately lead to the explosion and deaths of 10 men. Accident? Murder? Mass murder? What does the criminal law say? The foreman received the minimum ... ...4). Echo Burning. ABA Journal . Ross, J. (2009). Cutting the Edge: Current Perspectives in Radical/Critical Criminology and Criminal Justice. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Shukovsky, P. (2007). The FBI's Terrorism Trade-Off. Retrieved from Seattle Post-Intelligencer: http://www.seattlepi.com/national/311046_fbiterror11.html Siegel, L. (2004). Criminology Theories Patterns & Typologies. New York: Prentice Hall. Sutherland, E. (1940). White-Collar Criminality. American Sociological Review , 1-12. Valentino, S. (2008). White Collar Criminal Defense. Retrieved from Crime USA: http://www.crimeusa.com/White_Collar_Crime.html Young, J., Taylor, I., & Walton, P. (1975). Critical Criminology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Young, J., Taylor, I., & Walton, P. (1973). The New Criminology: For A Social Theory Of Deviance. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Ocean Dumping: Key Issues

Ocean Dumping: Key Issues Liz Gomez Ocean Dumping: Key Issues Marine debris is the official designation and referents to human created wastes that pollutes and are dumped deliberately or accidentally in lakes, waterways, seas and oceans. While certain debris naturally float on bodies of water (i. e. ogs and trees that got cut via natural events), certain communities, peoples and industries the world over deliberately dump debris and garbage in bodies of water without much thought into the effects of such acts in relation to threats to animals (fish, sea mammals, birds, reptiles) their habitats, coastal habitations and to human industries that depend on the bounty of the sea (i. e. fishing). Of late the greatest threat are the toxins released via the practice of ocean dumping which can destroy so easily fragile ocean habitats.Plastic and Styrofoam’s, being non-biodegradable cannot breakdown and affect ocean and water inhabitants in so many ways – accumulated debris preve nts photolysis, a component in photosynthesis killing marine life. Ghost nets and accumulated plastic as well as unique debris like six-pack rings can entangle marine life and result to movement restriction which can lead to starvation, laceration, infection and eventually, death. Dugongs, dolphins, sharks, reptiles, sea turtles and all sorts of fish can easily get entangled with ghost nets.Plastic bags and plastic pellets – the broken down versions of plastics via weathering clog the digestive tract of marine animals and where they pool, prevent photolysis as well. It does not help that the smaller pellets, known as nurdles resemble fish eggs. Populations of fish and sea mammals often mistake them for fish eggs and their ingestion result to death. Ever since man started sailing, the ocean has become a dumping ground for debris and materials. Greenpeace estimates that annually, containers ships lose about 10,000 containers while at sea.Adding to marine debris is the runoff fr om landfills & storm drains. The danger in the toxic contamination via ocean dumping can be seen in varied incidents in the Arctic Sea. In the 50's Russia dumped highly radioactive materials in their own part of the Arctic – the Barents Karas Sea but the toxicity spread through the rich fishing grounds of the international and open waters of the sea that it affected and threatened fish populations and the industry of Arctic Sea Fishing.Of recent, the experience of the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico showed how fragile marine biology is as species of marine life got heavily affected which in turn affected the fishing and tourism industries of the towns and cities around the gulf which destroyed livelihoods and way of life. Aside from the issues listed above, key concerns in relation to how ocean dumping affects human life are identified as follows (Burger, 2009) – 1) Occupational accidents, injuries, and exposures; ) Exposure of the public to hazardous or toxic material s washed up on beaches; 3) Human consumption of marine organisms that have been contaminated by ocean disposal. A further complication is the practice of legal dumping where countries (including the US) allow dumping of materials into the sea/ocean following certain situations and measures. Environmental organizations have since been advocating against such measures. To counteract them however, in the case of the US, the following measures have been put in place – †¢ Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Toxic Substances Control Act, †¢ Water Pollution Prevention and Control Act, †¢ Air Pollution Prevention and Control Act, Dangerous Cargo Act, †¢ Ports and Waterways Safety Act, †¢ Deep Water Ports Act, †¢ Ocean Dumping Act Of the above, the biggest act with a direct impact on ocean dumping is the last measure, the Ocean Dumping Act. Enacted in 1988, with additional amendments the EPA presents the highlights of the act today as follows (EPA, 20 10) – †¢ TITLE I – OCEAN DUMPING BAN ACT OF 1988 (Amends the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, commonly called the â€Å"Ocean Dumping Act†) Makes it unlawful for any person to dump, or transport for the purpose of dumping, sewage sludge or industrial waste into ocean waters after December 31, 1991; †¢ Prohibits, after the 270th day after enactment, any person from dumping, or transporting for the purpose of dumping, sewage sludge or industrial waste into ocean waters unless the person: (1) enters into a compliance or enforcement agreement (which includes a plan negotiated by the dumper, the State, and EPA for terminating dumping as well as a schedule which EPA believes will result in the termination of the dumping), and (2) obtains a permit issued by EPA under authority of sec. 02 of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA); †¢ Provides for the payment of special fees for dumping and any penalties incurred by a dumper to be deposited into certain funds for use in finding alternatives to ocean dumping. †¢ TITLE II – DESIGNATION OF AREAS FOR PRIORITY CONSIDERATION UNDER NATIONAL ESTUARY PROGRAM †¢ This title adds four new areas to the list of sites which EPA must give priority consideration when designating new estuaries for inclusion in the National Estuary Program: Massachusetts Bay; Barataria-Terrebonne Estuary Complex, Louisiana; Indian River Lagoon, Florida; and Peconic Bay, New York. TITLE III – DUMPING OF MEDICAL WASTE †¢ Cited as the â€Å"United States Public Vessel Medical Waste Anti-Dumping Act of 1988†, this section prohibits, 6 months after enactment, disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into ocean waters by a â€Å"public vessel†. Two narrowly crafted exceptions to this prohibition relating to health and safety of the crew, or times of war or national emergency are set forth. This title also: defines â€Å"medical wasteâ €  for purposes of the Ocean Dumping Act; adds medical wastes to the list of materials the dumping of which is prohibited under the Ocean Dumping Act; increases the civil penalties for illegal dumping of medical wastes under the Ocean Dumping Act and includes a provision for forfeiture of the vessel; and provides increased criminal sanctions under the Ocean Dumping Act for illegal dumping of medical wastes; defines â€Å"medical waste† for purposes of the CWA using the same definition as for the MPRSA; and, incorporates the term â€Å"medical waste† into the list of pollutants for which the discharge is prohibited under sec. 301(f) of the CWA. †¢ TITLE IV – SHORE PROTECTION ACT OF 1988 †¢ This section prohibits the transportation of municipal or commercial waste within coastal waters by a vessel without a permit and number or other marking. The Secretary of Transportation will issue the permits. The application procedure is set forth. Grounds on whi ch a permit may be denied are set forth. The federal Department of Transportation has discretion to deny permits, but must deny a permit if so requested by EPA. Other specifics as to this process are detailed. OpinionThe advocacies of Greenpeace and agencies campaigning against ocean dumping are clear in their message. Ocean Dumping is not conducive to maintaining ecological balance and while for now it might be immediately beneficial to those legally allowed to dump waste in our oceans, in the end when the toxicity level reaches concentrations that are deadly, there will come a point where it some areas of our oceans and bodies of water will become ‘dead' – marine life would not be supported and the toxicity from such concentrated pollution will easily affect other parts of struggling marine environments. Fishing and related industries will be affected and human life dependent on marine bounty will be deeply affected.To me, it seems that because of the vastness of the planet's oceans and the lack of a universal enforcement body and law that can require countries and their citizens to ensure that all these rules are followed, it would seem that some of these advocacies and campaign fall into deaf earns. There are shorelines and coastlines the world over that are now full of debris, coral reefs have died, former healthy fishing habitats have now dried up. What I find most problematic is the ‘legal dumpings' – if environmental protection of oceans is a priority surely dumpings that no doubt will increase ocean debris and contribute to water toxicity should not be tolerated.So far however in international waters, without the activity of advocates like Greenpeace, the negative effect of ocean dumping will most certainly not find its way into public concerns. A country can only police its own people and its shorelines. I believe that globalization has increased man's activities in relation to manufacture travel and trade and pollution brou ght about by ocean dumping will no doubt have long term affects to the health and state of marine life all over the world. A universal measure to counteract this problem and the creation of an international agency empowered by the UN for example should be put in place to ensure that the problem does not escalate. I doubt this will happen anytime soon, however.The 1982 UN Convention on The Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 1982) which was enforced in 1994 is the closest but is limited for it only provides a ‘framework for the determination of the rights and obligations of states relating to the oceans' only. While ‘Part XII contains provisions with regard to protection and preservation of the marine environment' – they are still just non-working provisos that are having problems in terms of enforcement. Without an agency tasked to reinforce the provisos, the Law of the Sea remains ineffective. References: http://www. enotes. com/public-health-encyclopedia/ocean-dumping http:/ /archive. greenpeace. org/odumping/ http://www1. american. edu/ted/arctic. htm http://www. epa. gov/history/topics/mprsa/02. htm http://www. pollutionissues. com/Na-Ph/Ocean-Dumping. html

The Controversy Of The Red Scare Essay - 1519 Words

During the late 1940s, the lavender scare was a time of extreme injustice towards homosexuals in America. Homosexuals were being persecuted because they were thought to be a threat to American society. Homosexuals were being accused of disloyalty to the government, communism, and simply, affecting America’s values. This history of homophobia was driven by fear and reassurance of America’s predominant role in the world. Although American society has come a long way in aspect to justice for the LGBT community, it still falls short for complete equality. Because of this, it is important to be aware of the history of this community as it affected various homosexuals at the time. In spite of the fact that homophobia existed before the Cold War, there wasn’t much attention towards targeting homosexuals until then. The end of World War II began to bring forth the intense persecution by not only excluding homesexuals in the military, but by also excluding them from civi l service. President Truman’s want to aid Greece and Turkey, expressed in his address, was rooted from fear that Communist forces in those countries will take over the U.S. This implemented an executive order of a loyalty program in the government, in which the State Department attempted to partake in. The State Department began to fire homosexual employees, even though Truman’s executive order did not refer to one’s sexuality. Moreover, Joseph Mccarthy’s claim of Communists in the State Department gained massShow MoreRelatedRed Scare And The Crucible Comparison Essay1008 Words   |  5 PagesThe Red Scare and The Salem Witch Trials were both events that left a mark in American history. The Red Scare began in 1917 and took place across the United States. The Red Scare was known as the widespread promotion of anti-communism. The Salem Witch Trials began in 1692 and took place in Salem, Massachusetts. 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